Biological macromolecules comprise carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Their structure is studied in molecular biology and supramolecular chemistry. Research areas include the structure, folding, and function of supercomplex proteins, the 'nanomachines of life' (see Proteins, Note 1). Early milestones achieved include advances in unraveling the structure of enzymes, insulin, hemoglobin, and antibodies (see Nobel Prizes 1946, 1958, 1962, 1972, and Proteins, Note 4).
Biomolecules are formed by covalent bonding of carbon atoms and hydrogen bonding of polar groups of atoms (see also Bonds, Note 1). The resulting three-dimensional structures are hugely complex (see pi and sigma bonds, stereochemistry, chirality and alkanes). In addition, Van der Waals forces are also thought to participate in the formation of biological macromolecules.