Reality → Tech → Chips → Integrated circuit
The first assembly of a prototype integrated circuit is commonly attributed to Jack Kilby's lab work of 1958 at Texas Instruments [1] . Pocket calculators, introduced in the late-1960s, were among the first mass products using integrated circuits [2] . The replacement of germanium by silicon and the introduction of the planar process were key steps for cost-efficient mass production and the subsequent rise of the semiconductor and computer industries in the Silicon Valley [3] . A relentless rush to ever smaller components and increased device performance has led to 3-dimensional transistors [4] and systems-on-a-chip [5] . The huge storage capacities of modern USB flash drives reflect the mind-boggling miniaturization and performance of modern chips [6] .
Kilby at Texas Instruments and Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor invented the integrated circuit almost simultaneously, though only Kilby was later honored with a share of the 2000 Physics Nobel Prize.
Although key US military programs of the cold war era (e.g., Minuteman missile and Apollo moon program) were the first users of integrated circuits, Japanese manufacturers (e.g., Sanyo, Casio, Sharp, Seiko) quickly conquered commercial markets with pocket calculators and electronic watches. In the US, Texas Instruments and Hewlett Packard produced sophisticated scientific and financial calculators throughout the 1970s and 80s.
Silicon Valley's early roots can perhaps be traced back to World War II electronic warfare, when Stanford University, venture capitalists, and startups became increasingly involved with electronic inventions which at that time still mostly originated at the East Coast (e.g., from Bell Labs and MIT). In 1957, the traitorous eight founded Fairchild Semiconductor. In the early 1960s, the company became industry leader with its planar production process of silicon chips. In 1968, Noyce and Moore left Fairchild and founded Intel.
The 3D Tri-Gate transistor (a FinFET and multigate transistor) was introduced by Intel in 2012. A chip with these features, according to Intel, saves 50 % power and improves performance by 30 % compared to classical MOSFETs.
A system on a chip (SoC) integrates major components of a computer (e.g., units for central processing, graphics, memory, audio, radio, camera, sensors, actuators, and power) on a single chip. SoCs reduce power needs, increase speed, and use minimum space. They became key components of smartphones and tablets, and are increasingly used in notebooks and laptops.
Today, low-priced USB flash drives can store 256 GB of flash memory on only about 1 cm2 chip surface, the surface of a fingernail. This tiny area stores the equivalent of 250,000 books, 500,000 photos, 50,000 songs, or 25 hours of HD video (see Sheet).